NYS Comptroller Tom DiNapoli Audit Identifies Discrepancies in Dropout Rate Reported by NYC Department of Education

The dropout rate among New York City public school students is higher than claims made by the city Department of Education (DoE), according to an audit released by State Comptroller Thomas P. DiNapoli. DiNapoli’s auditors found that for the 2004 through 2008 school years, the dropout rate may have been as high as 16.5 percent, rather than the 13 percent cited by DoE. As a result, the graduation rate may have been as low as 62.9 percent, rather than the 65.5 percent reported by DoE.

“The city school system needs to sharpen its pencils when it comes to knowing which kids are dropping out and which kids are transferring to another school,” said DiNapoli. “DoE should be doing its homework and making sure the right papers are turned in to back up the reasons why students are leaving school.”

High school graduation and dropout rates are regarded as important indicators of a school’s effectiveness.


While the audit considered reported rates within 5 percent of audited rates to be generally accurate, the difference means that the graduation rate and discharge rate include thousands of students who actually dropped out.

DiNapoli’s auditors attribute the discrepancy to DoE’s erroneous classification of dropout students as having been “discharged” from high school. Discharged students should only be categorized as such when they transfer to another school or another educational program, leave the country, or are deceased.

DiNapoli’s auditors examined DoE’s discharge records for its 2004-08 general education cohort (the group of students who entered ninth grade in 2004 and were expected to graduate four years later), and found that in a random sample of 500 “discharged” students, 74 (14.8 percent) didn’t have the required documentation. As a result, all 74 should have been classified as dropouts.

Projecting the results of the sample to the entire cohort, DiNapoli’s auditors found that the correct graduation rate for the cohort was between 62.9 and 63.6 percent, rather than the 65.5 percent reported by DoE, and the correct dropout rate was between 15.5 and 16.5 percent, rather than the 13.0 percent reported by DoE. At some individual high schools, the correct graduation rates could be lower, and the correct dropout rates higher, than DoE reported.

According to DoE, the city’s 2004-08 general education cohort had a total of 88,612 students, of whom 46,896 graduated, 15,368 were still enrolled after four years, 17,025 were discharged, and 9,323 dropped out.

DiNapoli’s auditors also examined DoE’s discharge classifications for its 2004-08 special education cohort and identified similar errors. Auditors estimated that the correct graduation rate for this cohort was between 8.9 and 9.3 percent, rather than the 9.7 percent reported by DoE, and the correct dropout rate was between 20.6 and 23.8 percent, rather than the 17.2 percent reported by DoE. Even with the identified error rate, the NYC graduation rate is trending upwards as reported by DoE.

DiNapoli recommended that DoE officials:

• Ensure that DoE discharge guidelines fully align with New York State Education Department (SED) regulations;
• Instruct all schools to adhere to the SED regulations for discharge classifications, and provide training in the regulations for school staff who administer discharges; and
• Conduct periodic reviews of discharge classifications to determine whether they are being made and documented in accordance with SED regulations.

DoE officials generally agreed with DiNapoli’s recommendations and indicated they have taken action or will be taking action to implement them. Most notably, DoE’s guidelines were amended before the 2009-10 school year to better align with SED’s guidelines on required documentation to support a discharge classification. Click here for a copy of the report.

NYC Comptroller John C. Liu Statement on Possible Teacher Layoffs...

City Comptroller John C. Liu stated the following in response to inquiries about his reaction to Governor Cuomo’s proposal regarding teachers:

“Rather than attempt an end-run around collective bargaining, as the Mayor has tried to do, Governor Cuomo has stood up for both the city's children and the rights of union members.

“The Governor has continued to insist that the state budget he has proposed should not require local layoffs, despite the fact that the Mayor has threatened to lay off thousands of teachers and send class sizes skyrocketing, even if the state comes through with major new revenues for the city.

“The Governor has also taken a creative approach to developing a new and more objective standard to measure teacher effectiveness – a methodology developed by State Education Commissioner Steiner and the teachers' union that helped ensure New York's success in the national Race to the Top competition.

“New York is not Wisconsin, and the kind of leadership Governor Cuomo has shown on these issues stands as an example to other states where critical services and workers' rights are under assault.”

New York State Comptroller Tom DiNapoli Releases Audits

New York State Comptroller Thomas P. DiNapoli announced today the following audits have been issued:

New York City Department of Education, Non-Competitively Awarded Contracts (Follow-Up) (2010-F-26)
The New York City Department of Education must comply with applicable procurement requirements when awarding non-competitively bid contracts. In audit report 2008-N-1, DiNapoli’s auditors examined whether the department complied with requirements and found that it didn’t. When auditors followed up, they found that department officials had made significant progress in correcting the problems identified in the initial report.

Department of Health, Inappropriate Medicaid Payments for Dental Services Provided to Patients With Dentures (Follow-Up) (2010-F-33)
The Department of Health administers the Medicaid program. In audit 2008-S-125, DiNapoli’s auditors reviewed claims for a five-year period and found that dentists may have been overpaid as much as $2.9 million for services provided to patients with dentures. Auditors determined that the Medicaid claims processing system, eMedNY, lacked the controls necessary to detect and prevent such overpayments. Auditors recommended that appropriate controls be developed and implemented. When they followed up, auditors determined that department officials made some progress in correcting the problems they identified but improvements were still needed.

City University of New York, Kingsborough Community College: Selected Financial Management Practices (Follow-Up) (2010-F-39)
The City University of New York consists of eleven senior colleges, six community colleges, and several other specialized and professional schools. In audit report 2008-N-9, DiNapoli’s auditors examined whether one of the community colleges (Kingsborough) complied with requirements relating to payroll, procurement and waiving of tuition, and found certain instances of non-compliance in all three areas. When auditors followed-up, they found that officials had made progress in correcting the problems they identified.

State Education Department, St. Francis de Sales School for the Deaf: Selected Financial Management Practices (Follow-Up) (2010-F-40)
St. Francis de Sales School for the Deaf is one of 11 private schools that receive operating aid directly from the state to provide educational services to disabled students. In audit report 2008-S-160, auditors identified a number of internal control weaknesses in the areas of procurement, cash disbursements and payroll. Auditors also found that the school’s board of trustees was not providing effective oversight of financial operations. When auditors followed up, they found that officials had made significant progress in correcting the problems identified, but improvements were still needed.

Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, Natural Heritage Trust, Sources of Trust Revenues (2009-S-11)
The Natural Heritage Trust maintains over 200 custodial accounts for account holders, including the Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. DiNapoli’s auditors examined whether Office of Parks revenue was incorrectly deposited into the custodial accounts of the trust. They found that more than $3.5 million in revenue was deposited into trust accounts incorrectly. Auditors recommended the Office of Parks recover the funds and improve controls over revenue.

Metropolitan Transportation Authority, Minority and Women’s Business Enterprise Reporting (2010-S-9)
State agencies and public authorities are required to promote the participation of minority-owned business enterprises (MBEs) and women-owned business enterprises (WBEs) in state contracts and procurement opportunities. Specifically, agencies must establish annual goals for such participation and make a “good faith” effort to achieve these goals. DiNapoli’s auditors examined the Metropolitan Transportation Authority’s performance and found that it was establishing annual goals and making a good faith effort to reach them. However, the MTA’s goals were unreasonable, and as a result, they have consistently fallen short of their goals. Auditors also found that the MTA was not accurately reporting results of its efforts and was overstating its procurements. Auditors recommended improvements to comply with contract requirements.

Parents Vow To Continue Fight For Quality Education In NYC - NYC Kids Pac

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Albany Supreme Court Judge Sides With Education Commissioner; Rejects Challenge To Steiner-Black Waiver

On Wednesday, December 29, Judge Gerald Connolly of the Albany County Supreme Court denied the petitions submitted on behalf of 13 parent Petitioners and one teacher challenging New York State Education Commissioner David Steiner’s waiver of employment requirements for Cathleen Black so she could assume the office of Chancellor of the New York City Department of Education.

The Petitioners, including New York State Assembly Member Hakeem Jeffries (D-57) and members of the Deny Waiver Coalition, contend that Ms. Black does not have the qualifications necessary under New York State law to oversee the educational system that serves their children and, furthermore, that Commissioner Steiner misinterpreted State law and exceeded his authority in granting the waiver to Ms. Black.

Attorney Norman Siegel, representing the 14 Petitioners, stated the following: “We are disappointed with the Court’s decision. We believed that there would be a different outcome and that Ms. Black’s waiver would not be allowed to stand. I will be consulting with the parents and teacher to determine their next step.”

Assemblyman Hakeem Jeffries, a parent Petitioner, said, “The decision by Judge Connolly is extremely disappointing but we will not throw in the towel with respect to the effort to improve our public schools system. Cathie Black remains unqualified to be chancellor. We will make a determination about whether to appeal shortly.”

Parent Petitioner Mona Davids said, “I am disappointed in Judge Connolly’s decision but not surprised. The decision to grant a waiver to Black who is clearly unqualified shows our children that it’s not what you know but who you know. The appointment of unqualified Black has served as a catalyst to mobilize parents throughout the city to fight for a quality education for our children.”

Noah E. Gotbaum, parent Petitioner, stated, “This case is just the beginning of the movement of parents and educators to fight for our 1.1 million kids and to stand up against the current business model of education and its constituency of out-of-touch billionaires.”

Teacher Petitioner Julie Cavanagh was unhappy with the decision. “I am saddened by the decision handed down today, but I am inspired by the brave parents, educators and citizens who stood up and fought for justice and for their voice to be heard. I stand firm in the beliefs held by the Deny Waiver Coalition; our children deserve a qualified Chancellor with the education credentials the law requires.”

Parent Petitioner Patricia Connelly said, “While I am profoundly disappointed with today’s decision by Judge Connolly, I for one am not ready to let this illegal and immoral waiver stand. I join my fellow petitioners in demanding that the public be restored to our rightful place at the table in protecting and promoting a truly democratic public education system here in New York City.”

Parent Petitioner Shino Tanikawa, said, “I am deeply disappointed and puzzled by Judge Connolly’s decision. However, I am, along with the others, determined to continue fighting for what is right.”

Chris Owens, a parent Petitioner, expressed his frustration with the perspective of Commissioner Steiner and the Court. “Unfortunately, this judge ignored the true intent of the Education Law – to protect the quality and integrity of education management in New York State. Given the current state of our streets, I am uncomfortable with someone who only has management credentials handling this City’s education storm and the future of my two sons.”

Ms. Black was nominated by Mayor Bloomberg on November 9, 2010 to succeed outgoing Chancellor Joel Klein. Commissioner Steiner granted the waiver on November 29.

Attorneys Norman Siegel and Herbert Teitelbaum, representing the 14 Petitioners, were joined by attorneys Roger Wareham and Eric Snyder, each representing additional New York City public school parents who are also challenging the Steiner waiver. Three separate Article 78 petitions challenging the waiver had been filed and were consolidated during the court hearing.

Parent Petitioners were Assemblyman Jeffries (Brooklyn), Hon. Chris Owens (Brooklyn), Ms. Mona Davids (Bronx), Mr. Noah Gotbaum (Manhattan), Ms. Khem Irby (Brooklyn), Ms. Lydia Bellahcene (Brooklyn), Ms. Patricia Connelly (Brooklyn), Ms. Monica Ayuso (Queens), Ms. Mariama Sanoh (Manhattan), Mr. John Battis (Brooklyn), Ms. Latrina Miley (Manhattan), Ms. Shino Tanikawa-Oglesby (Manhattan) and Ms. Maria Farano-Rodriguez (Staten Island), as well as teacher Petitioner Julie Cavanagh (Brooklyn).

After Hearing Lawyers Optimistic Cathie Black’s Waiver to be Overturned by Michael A. Harris - New York Government | Examiner.com

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A lawyer for parents challenging the appointment of Cathleen P. Black to be the next city schools chancellor says he’s optimistic his client’s will emerge victorious.

Lawyers for the parents appeared in court in an Albany court room yesterday arguing that Black lacks the required educational experience or academic credentials to serve as head of the nation’s largest schools system.

Judge Gerald Connolly did not immediately indicate when the court might rule, but Attorney Norman Siegel said he and other attorneys received an E-mail from the judge last night asking for cell phone numbers where they could be reached over the holidays. He said that makes him think that a ruling is likely to come next week, before January 3, when Black is scheduled to take over the reins.

Under state law and related regulations, school superintendents have to have a master's degree or higher, 60 hours of graduate work, a professional certification and three years of teaching experience. However, the education commissioner can grant a waiver to the "exceptionally qualified" candidate that has "training and experience that are the substantial equivalent of such requirements."

Lawyers argued that Education Commissioner David M. Steiner’s waiver of requisite education and experience was “arbitrary and capricious” and therefore unlawful. Siegel acknowledged that Steiner has discretion, but that such discretion must be in compliance with the law.

Attorneys for parents and teachers say that there are two key legal issues in play – first that Black lacks a graduate degree, a requirement that he believes can’t be waived and second that the basis for the waiver was flawed because Steiner relied on the skills of others in deciding to grant the waiver.

“One of the overriding clouds over the court room was the right of public officials to act independently,” Siegel told Examiner.com. “We’re not asking the court to second guess a public official; rather we’re simply saying that they have to act within the bounds of the law – when they fail to do so it’s the role of the judiciary to intervene.”

Siegel said he is optimistic that his side will emerge victorious, especially because the defendants conceded his key legal argument.

“Not only did David Steiner’s waiver say that Cathie Black would be relying heavily upon staff, but when asked about that by the judge, [Deputy Attorney General] Kelly Munkwitz conceded that point,” he said. “That alone could mean victory for us.”

Munkwitz, representing Steiner and the state, countered that Black has exceptional experience in dealing with large organizations, collaborating, leading, engaging diverse stakeholders, building relationships and managing facilities and money.

"What Ms. Black didn't get in the classroom, she got in the scope of her career," Munkwitz said.

Siegel, one of four lawyers fighting Black's waiver says that regardless of which side wins, he expects an appeal to be filed.

Why Won't New York City Schools Chancellor Cathie Black Talk to the Press? by Liz Dwyer - Good Education

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Given that she comes from a media background you would think the Chancellor-designee of New York City's public schools, former Hearst Magazines Chairman Cathie Black, would be comfortable talking to the press. But on her first day on the job, Black barely spoke to reporters, and side-stepped more substantive questions from a crowd of parents. Now Black's office reportedly isn't responding to requests from New York City media about her schedule and public appearances.

According to the New York Daily News, the city's education department press secretary Natalie Ravitz said they wouldn't reveal Black's schedule because:

...part of being chancellor is visiting schools and talking with principals, teachers, and parents openly and candidly about what is happening in their school community. Having TV cameras and reporters there is often not conducive to such an open and honest exchange. So there will be public visits and private visits.

The trend of hiding Black from the press and the public began after her controversial appointment three weeks ago by Mayor Michael Bloomberg. Black has yet to give a public speech about what she will do for New York's 1.1 million school children, and has yet to respond to critics who say she's unqualified for the job because she has zero education experience.

Black's Tuesday visit to Sedgwick School, Public School 109, in the Bronx to read to a group of first graders didn't silence concerns. According to The New York Times, when parent Nicole Bush yelled a question to Black about privatization of New York's public schools, Black replied, “I’m not going to comment on specific things this morning; it is my first day. And so I’ll get to understand that all of these things are very important and challenging questions, and we will come up with what we believe are the right answers.”

In the meantime, a small group of parents and teachers spent Tuesday calling attention to Black's lack of education know-how by staging a protest at her old stomping grounds, the Hearst Corporation headquarters in Midtown Manhattan. Five of the protesters even applied for Black's former job.

After turning in her application, New York parent Gloria Mattera told reporters, "You will see if you review my resume that I am absolutely unqualified to run a publishing company, which is exactly what Cathie Black is to run the NYC Public School system."

NY1 on the Deny the Waiver Coalition Rally at Tweed Courthouse - NYC Public School Parents Blog

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Check out the great statement by Patrick Sullivan, Manhattan member from the Panel for Educational Policy. Other newsclips at Gotham Schools, DNA Info, and Gotham Gazette. See photos here.

Cathie Black Claims to Have Educational Experience with Charter School Board Post, But it's Moot by Meredith Kolodner & Greg B. Smith - NY Daily News

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Parents and school officials at the Harlem Village Academies School say they've had little contact with schools chancellor nominee Cathie Black.

City schools chancellor nominee Cathie Black insists she's connected to public education via a highly touted charter school - but a close look shows she's had no contact with students, parents or teachers there.

Officials at the Harlem Village Academies admit the school's National Leadership Board, which Black joined just five months ago, has never met.

That board "has no operational or governing authority" over the school and exists for "support purposes only," the school said in response to Daily News questions.

Black primarily advised the school's CEO, Deborah Kenny, on "management, leadership, and the development of a book" Kenny is writing, the school said.

Harlem Village parents and former employees had little knowledge of Black, who is expected to get a state waiver that will allow her to take the job despite having almost no education experience.

"No, no, no, she's not with us," said the parent of a sixth-grader. "She's not on our board. We have a lot of people who give money, lots of very famous people come here. That could be what it is."

A second parent added, "I've heard of Cathie Black from the papers, but she's not part of this school."

Black's link to Harlem Village appears to be her only connection to New York public schools.

She went to Catholic school, sent her children to a Connecticut boarding school and spent her career in the publishing business.

Far from the average school

A former Harlem Village employee said Black visited the school in 2009 at Kenny's invitation as a possible donor. After that, the former employee never saw Black again.

Harlem Village officials said Black started on the board in July, a month after she lost her job as president of Hearst Magazines.

It's not clear when Mayor Bloomberg first approached Black with the idea of becoming chancellor.

Whatever Black's role there, Harlem Village has little in common with the average public school.

Kenny, who oversees 450 students, is paid $442,000, including a $140,000 "bonus" and $27,780 in "other" expenses.

The schools chancellor gets $250,000 to oversee 1.1 million students.

Many charter schools have a parent representative on their board. Harlem Village does not.

Bloomberg has called the school a national "poster child" for school reform. Conservative media mogul Rupert Murdoch gave $5 million toward construction of the new high school.

The school has been lauded nationally for its high test scores, including for pushing 100% of its eighth-graders to pass state math tests.

A look at the overall scores tells a different tale. In the last round of tests, like schools across New York, numbers dropped precipitously after the state made the tests tougher.

Schoolwide English test scores fell from 81% passing to 41%, while math dropped from 91% to 71%. And by eighth grade, the number of students taking the tests is a small fraction of the earlier grades.

The eighth grade with the 100% passing rate in math had 19 students.

'Why do they keep kids back?'

An unusually high number of younger students either drop out or are held back. In school year 2003-04, the year the school opened, only 48 of 73 fifth-graders made it to sixth grade. In school year 2006-07, 46 of 68 moved on; in 2007-08, just 40 of 76 fifth-graders made it to sixth grade.

Several parents praised the school for improving test scores and enforcing discipline but questioned why so many students were held back repeatedly.

"The school is good in some ways, but I don't like how they keep making so many kids stay back," one parent said. "There's a lot of pressure. If the school is as good as they say, then why do they keep the kids back?"

Higher grades fared better, although only 31 of 43 of the seventh-graders in 2006-07 made it to eighth grade and only 24 of that class went on to ninth, records show.

Harlem Village officials called the drop in overall test scores "irrelevant" because the school takes in low-performing students whose scores rise the longer they're at the school.

They also said the academy's high school students outperformed their public school peers, with 97% passing all Regents exams compared with 66% in public schools. They did not mention that the high school serves 163 students in ninth and tenth-grades only.

The middle school teacher turnover rate at Harlem Village Academies is also high: more than 50% of the teachers left or were fired in both the 2006-07 and 2007-08 school years. In 2008-09, the turnover was 25%; in 2009-10, the rate was up to 39%.

School officials said the reasons teachers leave are "wide-ranging," including teachers who "move out of state or become full-time mothers."

The school also punishes students at an exceptionally high rate. Harlem Village suspended half its students in school year 2005-06, 44% in 2006-07 and 62% in 2007-08.

By comparison, nearby Public School/Intermediate School 210 reported suspension rates of less than 5% in 2006-07 and 2007-08.

School officials said 95% of the suspensions were for "nonviolent behavior," including "teasing, cheating or disrespect."

Cathleen Black: Education's Sarah Palin? by Gary Anderson - The Huffington Post

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It was business as usual on Friday as David Steiner apparently has agreed to provide Bloomberg with the waiver he needs to appoint Cathleen Black as the new chancellor of education for New York City.

Cathleen Black is as embarrassingly ignorant of education as sure-to-be presidential candidate Sarah Palin is of national and geopolitical issues. Steiner, though should know better.

Unfortunately, although steeped in philosophy and educational theory, he shares Bloomberg's corporate ideology, and apparently is ultimately a political animal. He thinks John Dewey was wrong-headed and that he recanted his life's work. Instead of blaming exploding rates of inequality, concentrated poverty, and unemployment for the plight of inner-city youth, he blames progressive educators--progressive both in the Deweyian sense of "child-centered" and in the sense of "left-liberal".

Educators should be clear that this decision is not a compromise. Creating a new #2 position of chief academic officer was a ploy to make Steiner's decision seem more palatable in the face of significant public opposition. Shael Polakow-Suransky is already a top official at the city's department of education, and would be available to Ms. Black anyway. Giving him a new title will make little difference; it will only make the Tweed Hall administration even more top heavy. Good superintendents, and even high school principals have long worked as teams, meeting regularly with colleagues and pooling their knowledge. But this is not the kind of corporate management that Bloomberg has brought into public governance, nor unfortunately is it Cathleen Black's management style.

What was heartening was the immediate outcry and organized opposition to both the candidate and the non-process. In spite of buying off opponents, including the teachers union and nonprofits, Bloomberg's political machine is showing some cracks. For one brief moment, when his advisory panel, packed with members linked to Bloomberg, wavered in their support, I thought David Steiner might do something heroic and democratic. But it is now clear that behind the scenes (and the public's back) Steiner and the real players (apparently including Arne Duncan) were scrambling to shore up the damage caused by Bloomberg's secretive and impulsive appointment.

Merryl Tisch, chancellor of the state Board of Regents, aware that the new #2 position was really political spectacle, asserted, "The issue for us is, 'can we create credibility around this position?' "

Clearly the "us" she is referring to is not the citizens or teachers of New York City. Sol Stern, a conservative commentator with The Manhatten Institute perhaps put it best when he said that Mr. Polakow-Suransky will be treated as a "gofer" by the mayor and Ms. Black.

Mr. Polokow-Suransky is an educator and has a graduate degree from Bank Street College of Education, one of the best and most progressive Educational Leadership programs in the city. One can only speculate why Mr. Polakow-Suransky would go along with what appears to be a political charade. He is also a graduate of what the Wall Street Journal called the "prestigious" Broad Superintendents Academy. I don't want to engage in guilt by association, since it is possible that Mr. Polokow-Suransky's Bank Street education inoculated him against the Broad Academy Kool Aid. But, it is worth taking a look at the ideological tenets of the Broad Superintendents Academy and its impact on the current cadre of corporate thinking superintendents around the country.

Eli Broad, a Los Angeles-based venture philanthropist, has for two decades bankrolled the corporate education of current superintendents and the retooling of business and military leaders to be superintendents. A recent press release for the Broad Superintendents Academy proclaims that Broad graduates filled 43 percent of all external superintendent openings in large urban American school districts last year. Not only is Broad selling a corporate management model, he is recruiting future urban superintendents from the ranks of the military. According to the same press release:

This year's class also includes high-ranking Army and Air Force leaders, including a major general who oversaw 45,000 combat soldiers in Iraq and led officers of 26 nations to coordinate efforts in Afghanistan, a brigadier general who led the Army to create and deploy a 4,000 man organization into combat anywhere in the world within 96 hours, and a colonel who created nationally recognized business practices to better utilize the skills and talents of 60,000 Army officers (Broad Center Press Release, 2010, paragraph 6)

If a corporate model seems top-down and undemocratic, imagine leaders used to a chain of command organization! I am not against cross-sector borrowing of evidence-based and appropriately applied ideas. In my last post I elaborated on why worn-out ideas (mostly ideologies) from the corporate closet have had a devastating effect on public education. But do you suppose there has been a nuanced discussion of the cross-sector borrowing from the military to education?

Speaking of cross-sector borrowing, a group of teachers from the Green Party will be applying for Ms. Black's position at Hearst magazines. They will bring books about the publishing industry and ask them to have patience while they "get up to speed." What do think their odds of getting hired are? Apparently cross-sector borrowing is a one-way street.

About the Author:

L. Anderson is a former high school teacher and principal, having taught and administered schools in Iowa, New York City, and Mexico. He is a professor of Educational Leadership in the Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development at New York University (NYU). He is the recipient of two Fullbright awards, one in Mexico and one in Argentina. His most recent publications are Advocacy Leadership: Toward a Post-Reform Agenda. (2009, Routledge). And The Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice. (2007, Sage, with Kathryn Herr).